The battle of Gaugamela re-enacted at Wichita State Dec. 11, 2006

Detail from the "Alexander Mosaic" from the House of the Faun, Pompeii (now: Museo Nazionale, Napoli). darius flees.

Detail from the "Alexander Mosaic" from the House of the Faun, Pompeii (now: Museo Nazionale, Napoli).: Alexadner attacks.

"Alexander went quickly up to Bucephalas, took hold of his bridle and turned him toward the sun.... He ran alongside the animal for a little way, calming him down by stroking him, and then when he saw he was full of spirit and courage ... with a little spring he vaulted safely onto his back." Philipp greats him with the words "My boy, you must find a kingdom bug enough for your ambitions. Macedonia is too small for you."
"ὦ παῖ“ φάναι, "ζήτει σεαυτῷ βασιλείαν ἴσην· Μακεδονία γάρ σ’ οὐ χωρεῖ." Plutarch, Alexander §6.


The pre-battle huddle.


"Wait no longer. Forward to the attack."


"Alexander, at the head of his own troops on the right wing, rode at a gallopp into th stream."





"Darius, in his war chariot, saw that he had been cut off, he incontinently fled. Indeed, he led the race for safety.

Brief overview of Serapis

When the Greeks came to power in Egypt, they wanted a deity who could be worshipped by Greeks and Egyptians alike. The Greeks invented a deity who they said was equivalent to the popular bull deity, Apis; however, Serapis was associated with other deities as well, including Pluto, Osiris, and Dionysis[1]. The identity of Serapis wasn’t fixed, and while he took on some of the traits of these gods—including the one they had in common, which was an association with death—Pluto, Osiris, and Dionysis retained their own identities. Because Serapis was seen as a “savior god,"[2] he became popular among people of every class of society.[3]

[1] Serapis Under the Early Ptolemies, John E. Stambaugh.
[2] Serapis Under the Early Ptolemies, John E. Stambaugh, page 2.
[3] Serapis Under the Early Ptolemies, John E. Stambaugh, page 98.

pothos.org Website Summary and Review

I. Alexander the Great
A. Alexander the Great
B. Birthday
C. Body & Height
D. Boyhood & Youth
E. Children
F. General Introduction
G. Internet Myths & Trivia
H. Passion
I. Pothos
J. Quotes
K. Timeline (brief)
L. Timeline (full)

II. Animals
A. Bucephals
B. Lions/Lion hunts

III. Art & Legends
A. Gordian Knot
B. Legends (birth)
C. Legends (death)
D. Legends (Gog & Magog)
E. Legends (Marco Polo)
F. Quotes
G. Seven Wonders

IV. Battles & Campaigns
A. Army
B. Battles (Major)
C. Battles (Minor)
D. First meeting with Darius
E. Hypaspists
F. Makran desert
G. Pezhetairoi, the Foot Companions
H. Wars (away)
I. Wars (home)

V. Books & Book Reviews
A. About Book Reviews
B. Alexander
C. Ancient Texts
D. Ancient World
E. Commentary
F. Diadochi
G. Fiction (Bad)
H. Fiction (Good)
I. Fiction (rest)
J. Macedonia
K. Non-English
L. Persia
M. Philip
N. Vergina
O. Warfare
P. Women
Q. Historiography
R. Pothos.org Top 10

VI. Death
A. Burial
B. Death
C. Death of Philip: Murder or Assassination?
D. Legends (Death)

VII. Geography & Culture
A. Astronomical Diaries
B. Hellenism--After Alexander
C. Makran Desert
D. Persian Empire
E. Route Map
F. Seven Wonders
G. Travel--Alexander's Footsteps
H. Travel--Siwa Oasis Diary

VIII. Main Characters
Aristotle
Barsine
Callisthenes
Cleitus the Black
Coenus
Craterus
Darius II
Death of Philip: Murder or Assassination?
Eumenes
Harpalus
Hephaestion
Leonnatus
Lysimachus
Nearchus
Olympias
Parmenion
Pausanius the Assassin
Perdiccas
Philip II
Philotas
Ptolemy
Seleucus
Sisygambis
Stateira

IX. Minor Characters
Alexander of Epirus
Alexander of Lyncestis
Aristander
Artabazus
Cleophis of Assacana
Drypetis, daughter of Darius
Erigyius
Kleitarchos
Laomedon
Oxyartes
Peucestas
Philip of Acarnania
Sons of Andromenes
Thalestris, the Amazon Queen

X. Movies
A. Alexander den store (1917)
B. Alexander the Great (1956)
C. New Movies
D. Sikander (1941)

XI. Religion
A. Divinity
B. Holy Koran

XII. Sex
A. Children
B. Hephaestion
C. Lovers
D. Sexuality


XIII. Showcase--New Books
A. A-Z Overview
B. Aengus Dewar
C. Andrew Chugg
D. G.A. Hauser
E. Jona Lendering
F. K.A. Solo
G. Karen Wehrstein
H. Maciej Milczanowski
I. Marcus Pailing
J. Scott Oden

XIV. Study
A. Astronomical Diaries
B. Historiography
C. Kleitarchos
D. Source Links
E. Studying Alexander
F. Timeline (brief)
G. Timeline (full)

Review:
As a whole, I enjoyed this website about Alexander the Great because it makes an extensive effort to list many different aspects of his life and influences. Additionally, it is an excellent website for students conducting research because of list of books and source links available. While the originator of the website, Thomas William-Powlett, does not have an extensive academic background, his collaborators make frequent historical references to sources such as Arrian, Plutarch, and Curtius. It also provides information for those who are just beginning to learn about Alexander the Great, i.e., basic information, as well de-bunked pop culture myths (Alexander's sexuality).

P. Oxy 1826--The Sesonchosis Romance

The Sesonchosis Romance denotes a particular text, known from papyrus fragments, which exploits legendary material to create a fictional narrative. The title was first applied to P. Oxy. 1826, a codex fragment dated to the late 3rd or early 4th century. Written in Demotic, the fragment was found in the ancient dumps of the city Oxyrhynchus, located roughly 150 miles south of Alexandria on the branch of the Nile that ends at the Fayum Oasis. The city flourished under its Hellenistic and Roman rulers. In the dumps were found thousands of papyrus scraps containing information on everyday life in the city--grocery lists, poetry, and other fictional writings, such as P. Oxy 1826.
The Sesonchosis Romance applies to the legendary conquests of Sesonchosis, the Egyptian pharaoh. This story combines the history of two pharaohs of the 12th dynasty (Senwosret I and Senwosret III) with additions from later rulers such as Ramses II, and ideals of kingship. It is an early example of the koenigsnovelle in that it praises the youthful Sesonchosis and provides divine justification for his rule, as is evident on the back of fragment 1826 in the last few lines when it mentions a god “assisting” Sesonchosis “into the country.”
The events of the Sesonchosis Romance and its themes of romance and intrigue (in later fragments) are significant because of their use in the Alexander Romance. In the story Alexander cites Sesonchosis as the ruler of the world and declares himself the "New Sesonchosis."

Alexander and the Silk Road

The Silk Road is an interconnected series of routes through Southern Asia connecting Chang'an (today's Xi'an), China, with Antioch, Asia Minor, as well as other points. It extends over 5,000 miles.
Exchanges of goods, services, and culture were significant not only for the development of the great civilizations of China, ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, India and Rome but also helped to lay the foundations of the modern world.
The continental Silk Road diverges into northern and southern routes as it extends from the commercial centers of North China, the northern route passing through the Bulgar–Kypchak zone to Eastern Europe and the Crimean peninsula, and from there across the Black Sea, Marmara Sea and the Balkans to Venice; the southern route passing through Turkestan–Khorasan into Mesopotamia and Anatolia, and then through Antioch in Southern Anatolia into the Mediterranean Sea or through the Levant into Egypt and North Africa.
This region was taken over by Alexander the Great, who finally conquered the Iranian empire, and colonized the area. The first major step in opening the Silk Road between the East and the West came with the expansion of Alexander the Great deep into Central Asia, as far as Ferghana at the borders of the modern-day Xinjiang region of China, where he founded in 329 BC a Greek settlement in the city of Alexandria Eschate "Alexandria The Farthest", Khujand (also called Khozdent or Khojent), in the state of Tajikistan.
Although he only ruled the area until 325 B.C., the effect of the Greek invasion was quite considerable. The Greek language was brought to the area, and Greek mythology was introduced. The aesthetics of Greek sculpture were merged with the ideas developed from the Indian kingdoms, and a separate local school of art emerged. By the third century B.C., the area had already become a crossroads of Asia, where Persian, Indian and Greek ideas met. It is believed that the residents of the Hunza valley in the Karakorum are the direct descendents of the army of Alexander.
This crossroads region, covering the area to the south of the Hindu Kush and Karakorum ranges, now Pakistan and Afghanistan, was overrun by a number of different peoples. After the Greeks, the tribes from Palmyra, in Syria, and then Parthia, to the east of the Mediterranean, took over the region. These peoples were less sophisticated than the Greeks, and adopted the Greek language and coin system in this region, introducing their own influences in the fields of sculpture and art.

Amazons in Greek art, by Ruth Harries and Kate Page

(Source)


“In the picture, above Herakles (dressed in his customary lion-skin) attacks an Amazon (right), bringing her to her knees. Above: Detail from an Athenian black-figure clay vase, about 550 BC. Boston, Museum of Fine Arts 98.916. © Boston, Museum of Fine Arts, Licence Plate 11 UK 1007 108”
Source

The myth behind this piece: Herakles (a famous warrior depicted extensively in Greek art) had killed his own wife and children, and as punishment was required to perform twelve labors. The ninth labor required him to retrieve the belt of Andromache (alternatively called Hippolyte), queen of the Amazons. In keeping with ancient conventions, Andromache is depicted with white skin. Notice, however, that she wears men’s battle dress. Additionally, as in other depictions of Greek warriors fighting Amazons, Herakles is on the verge of triumph, while Andromache is on the verge of defeat.


Above middle: 'The Ephesus Amazons'. Drawing from John Boardman, Classical Sculpture Fig. 195. © John Boardman
(Source)


Marble statuette of an Amazon; Roman, preserved height 104 cm. A Roman version of a Greek original of the 5th century BC.

From the website:“The elder Pliny, the Roman encyclopaedist, tells the story of a competition in ancient Greece for a statue of the Amazon for the temple of Artemis at Ephesus. The artists involved (who included Phidias, Polyclitus, and Cresilas) had to choose the winner, and this proved to be the Amazon ‘which each artist had placed second to his own’, namely the one made by Polyclitus. The Ashmolean’s Amazon may well relate to such a project.”

Source: the Ashmolean

Many people have the misconception that Amazons cut off one breast, since the Greek word “amazon” (a--without; mazos--breast) means “breastless.” However, this was a Greek mistranslation of an Iranian word which means “warriors.”

Also, notice that Greek art did not always depict Amazons with only one breast. The statue above, for example, has two breasts.


(large detail of the vase below, from www.holycross.edu)


Black-figured amphora (wine-jar) signed by Exekias as potter and attributed to him as painter
Greek, about 540-530 BC
Made in Athens, Greece; found at Vulci (now in Lazio, Italy)
Achilles killing the Amazon Queen Penthesilea

“Penthesilea brought her Amazon warriors to help the Trojans defend their city, but was killed in combat with Achilles, the greatest of the Greek warriors. The scene on this vase shows Achilles looming above her as she sinks to the ground. Achilles's face is masked and protected by his helmet; Penthesilea's helmet is pushed back to expose her features and emphasize her vulnerability at this vital moment. Her spear passes harmlessly across Achilles's chest, while his pierces her throat and blood spurts out. According to a later version of the story, at this very moment the eyes of the two warriors met and they fell, too late, in love.“ (Source: the British Museum)

As with the earlier vase of Herakles fighting Andromache, the Greek hero is in a position of strength, whereas the Amazon is about to be defeated. Notice that Penthesilea’s skin is painted white and that she is wearing men’s battle dress.This amphora is an example of black-figure pottery (meaning that the background is red and the people--figures--are black). The red and black are colors that come from the process of firing the pot; however, the white would have been painted on after firing. Exekias is one of the most famous black-figure potters (another famous example of his work is Ajax and Achilles playing dice).


(Source)
An Amazon carrying an injured one from the battlefield.


(Source)
From the Web site: “This picture shows the earliest, largely accepted representation of Amazons. It dates back to 700 BC. The two figures on the right side are interpreted as Amazons, at least they are female warriors, because little circles on the chest indicate their breasts. They are armed with spear and shield and they wear a long patterned gown and a very broad girdle.Most probably it depicts the fight between Heracles and the Amazon Queen Hippolyte.”

Although the figures are dressed similarly in this piece, the figure holding the sword is probably Herakles and the figure whose hair is being pulled is probably Hippolyte (Andromache).


(Source)
The Abduction of Antiope
68,4 no.7 p.124 Attic Black-figured Cup. London E41.
"Antiope is dressed and equipped as an archer with trousers, a sleeved jacket, and a pointed cap. A quiver hangs by her left side; in her left hand she holds the bow. There is a wreath on her cap and we also note the ear-ring. She leans forward and appears to scan the horizon for help."
Dietrich von Bothmer. 1957. Amazons in Greek Art. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Notice the careful execution of the details in this decoration.

See the Wikipedia article about Antiope for a brief summary of the various versions of the myth.


(Source)
Attic Red-Figure: Archaic and Later. Herakles and Amazons.
70,4a no10 p.132 Kantharos, Brussels A 718.
"Herakles is in the centre, stabbing an Amazon in the chest. To the right of Herakles an [Amazon] archer kneels beside a hoplite." [she is drawing her bow, aiming at Herakles]
Dietrich von Bothmer. 1957. Amazons in Greek Art. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

This is a later painting of Herakles and Andromache. However, the main element is the same; Herakles dominates Andromache.


(Source)
Attic Red-Figure: Archaic and Later. Herakles and Amazons.
70,5b no.18 p.132 Stamnos. Leningrad 807.
"Three Amazons are shown setting out. The first is an archer and carries a bow and a battle-axe; the second is equipped like a hoplite; the third is another archer. The archers wear chitons, corslets, and oriental pointed caps." [This figure is very unusual in style. The rendering of the legs is very lifelike. Note how short the bow is in the hand of the right-hand archer]
Dietrich von Bothmer. 1957. Amazons in Greek Art. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

These Amazons are shown wearing a mix of Greek and Persian clothing.


(Source)
Attic Red-Figure: Archaic and Later. Amazonomachies, without Herakles.
71,1 no22 p.143 Hydriai, the picture on the shoulder. New York 10.210.19.
"Here a nude Greek has just inflicted a second wound on the thigh of an Amazon who is falling backward half-supported by her bow. The Amazon wears a belted chiton and a pointed cap. We note a disk-shaped ear-ring in her left ear. Her eye shows that she is dying, much blood gushes forth from her wounds below the right breast and on the right thigh. With her right arm she seems to plead for mercy; the palm of her hand is turned up, and her mouth is open. She must have been kneeling on her left knee before she was wounded; now she has lost her balance and her right leg is stretched out. The artist has drawn her much taller than the Greek, but the discrepancy in scale is probably occasioned by the difficult foreshortening and novel pose."
Dietrich von Bothmer. 1957. Amazons in Greek Art. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Defeating an Amazon was considered an act of strength and manliness, since Amazons were considered to be fantastic warriors. As is evidenced in this depiction, not only great heroes (e.g., Herakles and Achilles) could defeat Amazons; regular Greek soldiers could defeat them, too.


(Source)
Attic Red-Figure: Early Classic and Classic. The Big Battles.
77.2 no.12 p.162 Dinoi. London 99.7-21.5.
"Theseus, followed by Perithous and a companion, rushes up to Andromache who has fallen on her left knee and raises her right arm with the axe in a last effort at resistance. Blood pours from the wound in her right thigh. Behind her, Hippolyte and two other Amazons ride up to defend the fallen queen."
Dietrich von Bothmer. 1957. Amazons in Greek Art. Oxford: Clarendon Press.


(Source)
Attic Red-Figure: Early Classic and Classic: With Mounted Amazons
77,6 no.30 p.177 Squat lekythos. Boston 95.48.
"The group on the right is the familiar one of a mounted Amazon fighting two Greeks; here the Amazon wears not the oriental costume but chiton, cuirass and helmet. On the left a Greek is attacked by an Amazon."
Dietrich von Bothmer. 1957. Amazons in Greek Art. Oxford: Clarendon Press.


(Source)
Attic Red-Figure: Early Classic and Classic: Amazons by themselves.
86,4 no. 189 p. 206 Lekythoi. Canea 6, from Polyrrhenia.
"The Amazons by the Canea painter are all archers." "Amazon in oriental costume with bow."
Dietrich von Bothmer. 1957. Amazons in Greek Art. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

In many of the depictions we have shown above, the Amazons were dressed in Greek men’s battle gear. There are other pieces, though, that show them wearing Persian dress; the painting above is a excellent example of this.The Greeks had a taboo against depicting any Greek women in their art; depicting Amazons was a way to get around this taboo, especially if the Amazons were wearing men’s battle gear or clearly foreign clothing.

Web site summary

The campaigns of Alexander the Great - from John Popovic's Web site (http://1stmuse.com/frames/index.html)

I. The conquest of Syria and Phoenicia (332 B.C.E.)
A. Darius offered peace to Alexander through a letter, but Alexander wanted an unconditional surrender.
B. The siege of Tyre
1. The citizens of Tyre refused to surrender to Alexander.
2. The citizens of Tyre barricaded themselves into the city.
3. Alexander built a causeway from the mainland to the island on which Tyre was located.
4. Alexander ultimately defeated the Tyrians not on land, but in a naval battle.
C. Darius sent Alexander another letter offering him a large portion of the Persian empire and a ransom of 10,000 talents for the release of the Persian royal family. Alexander again refused.
D. Gaza and the rest of Syria and Palestine
1. It took Alexander two months to conquer Gaza.
2. Although Alexander's shoulder was wounded, he successfully conquered Gaza and the rest of Syria and Palestine.
II. The conquest of Egypt (332 B.C.E.)
A. In November 332, Alexander took over Egypt without problems.
B. In Memphis, Alexander was crowned with the double crown of Egypt and made a sacrifice to Apis.
C. Winter 332 - 331
1. Alexander reorganized the government of Egypt.
a. Egyptian governors were hired.
b. The Egyptian military was under Macedonian command.
c. He founded Alexandria at the Nile delta.
2. Alexander visited the oracle of Ammon at Siwa.
a. The oracle was well-known for providing answers to difficult questions.
b. Alexander thought it was fitting that he visit the oracle since his alleged ancestors Heracles and Perseus had also visited this oracle.
c. The oracle greeted Alexander as the son of Ammon, which was the traditional greeting to give to the pharaoh.
d. The oracle declared that Alexander was indeed the son of Ammon (or Zeus, Ammon's Greek equivalent).
III. The conquest of Mesopotamia (331 - 330 B.C.E.)
A. The Battle of Gaugamela
1. Gaugamela was the last major battle between the Persians and the Macedonians.
2. The battle happened on the plain of Gaugamela, between Ninevah and the village of Arbela.
3. Darius eluded capture during this battle.
B. Alexander in Babylon and Susa and on the Iranian plateau
1. The Babylonians called Alexander the King of Asia.
2. Mazaeus, one of Darius' generals and the person who surrendered Babylon to Alexander, was made satrap.
3. Alexander took most of the royal wealth which was stored in Susa.
4. Alexander forced the tribes living on the Iranian plateau into submission.
5. Alexander successfully crossed through the pass called the Persian Gates in the Zagros range.
IV. The end of Persian rule
A. Alexander in Persepolis
1. Alexander took the royal wealth stored in Persepolis, the Persian capitol.
2. Alexander burned the royal palace of Persepolis in revenge for the Persian sack of Athens.
B. Alexander wanted joint rule between the Persians and the Macedonians, although some of the Macedonians had misgivings about this idea.
C. Darius' death
1. Alexander and his troops chased Darius for 12 days.
2. Darius fled to Bactria; his cousin Bessus was the satrap of Bactria.
3. Bessus and his allies overthrew Darius; Bessus stabbed Darius and left him to die.
4. Bessus preferred that Darius be dead rather than imprisoned.
5. Alexander gave Darius an imperial funeral.
6. Alexander eventually pursued, captured, tortured and killed Bessus for his betrayal.
V. Central Asia
A. Alexander was able to become "Lord of Asia" without much resistance after Darius' death.
B. Alexander easily conquered the mountainous region in addition to Darius' mercenaries.
C. Alexander encountered trouble conquering western Iran.
D. Winter of 330 - 329
1. Alexander arrived at the Kabul valley.
2. Bessus was in Bactria gathering support for an insurrection.
3. Alexander had to crush the revolt, but he didn't go directly to Bactria. Instead, he went through Khawak pass.
a. The Macedonians were feeling unsatisfied by Alexander's leadership.
b. Alexander had begun to wear Persian dress, which was un-Hellenistic.
c. Parmenio was accused of being part of a plot to betray Alexander and was executed. His men were also disposed of, and men who were close to Alexander were promoted.
E. 328 B.C.E.
1. Alexander crossed the Hindu Kush into Bactria.
2. Alexander crossed the Oxus river into Sogdiana in pursuit of Bessus.
3. Alexander sent Ptolemy after Bessus.
4. In July Bessus was captured, tortured, and executed in the way Persians executed traitors.
5. Alexander marched to the Jaxartes, where he brought the Scythians under his rule.
6. In the autumn, Alexander and his troops were occupying Maracanda (modern Samarkand). At a feast, Alexander murdered Cleitus, his friend and a commander. This strengthened the Macedonians’ growing distrust of Alexander.
F. The Sogdian Rock – Spring of 327
1. Alexander was moving through Afghanistan toward India.
2. Oxyartes and his rebels were occupying the Sogdian Rock, which was supposedly impenetrable.
3. Oxyartes challenged Alexander to send “men with wings” to conquer the rock.
4. Alexander sent up 300 climbers at night, taking the Sogdians by surprise.
5. Oxyartes surrendered, and he and Alexander eventually became friends.
6. In a gesture of good will and reconciliation, Alexander and Oxyartes’ daughter Roxana were married.
G. Alexander’s attempts to impose the Persian custom of proskynesis on the Macedonians were unsuccessful.
1. All of Alexander’s followers, including Callistenes, refused to do it.
2. Several weeks later, Callistenes was accused of conspiring with some of the royal pages in Bactria and was executed.

The Sarmatians

Josh Rathbun

The people known as the Sarmatians were actually a number of tribes living in the area stretching from the Vistula River to the mouth of the Danube, and southward to the Black and Caspian seas. The Sarmatians flourished from about the 6th century BC up until the 4th Century AD. These tribes spoke many different languages, but shared many of the same elements of dress, technology, weaponry, battle tactics, as well as cultural practices.
Herodotus (Book 4: 110-117) knew these people as the Sauromatae, and claims they originated from a group of young Scythian men who where intermarried with a group of Amazon warriors. He also comments on the unusual amount of freedoms enjoyed by the Sauromatae women, which he believed to stem from their Amazonian ancestors. In 2003, Dr. Jeannine Davis-Kimball excavated a Sarmatian burial of a woman warrior, adding to the belief that these Amazon warrior really existed.

website summary

Alexander Website Summary
Josh Rathbun

Original Site: History of Western Civilization - Alexander the Great


I. Philip of Macedon
1. Became king of Macedon at age 25 in the year 359 B.C.
2. Blended infantry with cavalry and invented the Macedonian phalanx
II. Philip's conquest of Greece
1. Battle of Chaeronea, Phillip defeats a combined Greek force
2. Phillip dies in 336, stabbed at a wedding
III. Alexander (Education and Character)
1. Tutored by Aristotle
2. “Bundle of contradictions and extremes”
IV. The Macedonian Army
1. Phalanx, heavy cavalry and Cretan archers
2. Alexander lead troops into battle
V. Asian Minor
1. Troy visit, Gordian knot
2. Defeats Persian satrap at the Granicus River
VI. Battle of Issus
1. 30,000 Greeks against 100,000 Persinas
2. Darius flees from Alexander and the Persian army collapses
VII. Siege of Tyre
1. Tyre said to be impenetrable
2. Alexander’s me build a “mole” and captured the city after 7 months
VIII. Egypt
1. Egyptians welcomed Alexander, glad to be free of the Persians
2. Visit’s the priest of Ammon at Siwah, declared to be son of Zeus
IX. Gaugamela
1. Alexander’s lesser force defeats Darius again with a charge on Darius himself
2. Alexander now rules the Persian empire, Darius found dead in 330 B.C.
X Iran and Afghanistan
1. Alexander adopts Persian dress, Easterners appointed as officers
2. Campaigns for 2 years in Afghanistan, wants to go across Hindu Kush
XI. India
1. Encounters war elephants, defeats Porus
2. Finally, the men refuse to go further East, Alexander stats back towards Persia
XII. Organization of Empire
1. Unites people of his empire through common currency, language
2. Begins plans for another campaign to Arabia
XIII. Alexander's Death
1. Weakened from wounds and a fever, dies June 13 323 B.C.
2. Buried in Alexandria, Egypt
XIV. After Alexander
1. Empire divided up between his Generals
2. Egypt goes to Ptolemy
XV. Legends
1. Appear in 80 languages, from Iceland to Malaya
2. Taming of Bucephalus
XVI. Conclusion
1. Hellenistic Period
2. End of the Persian threat from the east

Nectanebo II

"The Magician Pharaoh"

Brief Summary of Egyptian History:

• Egypt's history is divided into dynasties, called "houses"
• Kingship descended from heaven to the city of the sun god, Heliopolis
• Egypt was a province of the Persian Empire from 525-404 BC
• Other than the Greek city-states, it was the first country to shake off Achaemenid control
• After 25 years of being independent, power slipped from the family of Dynasty XXIX to a distant relative and military officer, Nekhtenebef, or Nectanebo I.
• In 362 BC, Nectanebo I was succeeded by his son Djeho, or Teos.
• Teos soon became unpopular, referred to as "un-Egyptian"
• Most of the army became loyal to his nephew, Nekhtharnehbo, or Nectanebo II.

Nectanebo II:

• He was the last Egyptian Pharaoh of Egypt
• Having seen the errors of his uncle, he felt he must become the self-image of Egypt
• He became the "dreamer of the Nile", devoted to the traditions of a timeless Egypt; the magician Pharaoh
• He became obsessed with temple-building, and built hundreds of temples, including the famous Temple of Isis at Behbeit
• The Demotic Chronicle, which is now on a papyrus in Paris, was written during his reign. This text includes a series of oracles with a general moral of "Honor the gods, that your days may be long"
• The cult of "Nectanebo the Falcon" grew during his reign as he took literal the ancient belief that the king of Egypt was a manifestation of the god Horus, whose emblem was a falcon. Numerous statues were constructed across the kingdom showing the disgraced Teos being replaced by Nectanebo II, or by his father Tamos.
• A statue of him holding a scimitar beneath the bosom of a large falcon can be found in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York.
• Stelae known as "cippi of Horus" resemble boundary markers, made of stone, contain inscriptions describing the victories of Horus over serpents, scorpions and all the demons of this world. One of the best examples of these is the Metternich Stela, located in the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
• In 343 BC, Artaxerxes led the Persians in re-capturing most of Egypt. Nectanebo fled, possibly to Ethiopia. 12 years later, Alexander came and was proclaimed Pharaoh.
• A magnificent sarcophagus was prepared for Nectanebo, which he was never to rest in, now located in the British Museum.
• The Dream of Nectanebo is on a papyrus, written in Greek by Apollonios, in Leiden. In the dream, the goddess Isis is accompanied by the god Onuris, who says that the temple of Sebennytos has been neglected, in that none of the hieroglyphs had been inscribed. The fault is on Samaus, the temple administrator, but Nectanebo sets out to find the fastest hieroglyph carver in the country to make things right. Petesis, the winner, was heading towards the temple when he saw the most beautiful girl he had ever seen. Unfortunately, Apollonios the scribe broke off here, and we don't know the end of the story.
  
• The most detailed written account of Nectanebo can be seen the "The Greek Alexander Romance."

Reference:

Ray, John. Reflections of Osiris: Lives from Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press, 2002. 113-129.

Penthesilea

Tales can be heard in Greek Mythology of a woman named Penthesilea, an Amazonian queen. She was the daughter of Ares and Orithia and was a very skilled warrior. Her legend begins with the death of her sister Hippolyte. While hunting, she accidently kills Hippolyte. Filled with grief over the accident she wants to die. As an Amazon warrior, however, she wants to die honorably in battle. Therefore, she leaves her tribe and goes to Troy, where she fights in the Trojan War. In a later battle, she encounters Achilles. In this battle, Achilles kills Penthesilea.

Finding the Amazons in Herodotus

In Herodotus's "Histories", (Waterfield, Robin. 1998. OUP) the Amazon women are mentioned twice. The first occurs in Book Four, Section 110, and continues until Section 117.

In this passage, Herodotus begins with the capture of several Amazon women after their defeat by the Greeks at the Battle of Thermodon. The Greek warriors held the women captive in a ship as they traveled homeward. However, the women revolted and overthrew the Greeks and took control of the vessel. Unfortunately, the Amazon's did not know how to control a ship and were therefore forced to "ride it out" until they crash landed by Lake Maeetis in a country inhabited by Scythians called Cremni. The women travelled inland for awhile and eventually came upon a herd of horses. Being extrewmely well versed in husbandry, the women were able to tame the horses and take them uinder their control. The Amazons soon began robbing the native Scythian villages, and in response, the Scythians sent out a fighting force to battle the Amazons. Interestingly enough, the Scythians believed that they were going against young men, not women. However, after the battle, while they were disposing of the corpses, the Scythians realized that they were actually fighting women warriors. The Scythians sent out a band of young men to follow the Amazons and camp near to them. They were ordered not to attack, and to retreat if the women attacked them. If that hapened, they were to return to their camp and continue trying to get close to the female camp. The reason for this, explains Herodotus, was so that the men could try and have intercourse with the women and assimilate them into their society. Eventually, the two camps came closer together went the Amazon's realized that the men were not going to harm them. During the day, the Amazon women would split up into ones and two's and go away to relive themselves. One day, a Scythian man encountered a woman alone and she allowed him to have intercourse with her. They could not understand each other's language, but the Amazon made it clear to him that the next day he should bring one of his friends and she would bring another woman.
After that, the men and women formed couples and lived in relative harmony. The women learned to speak Scythian. The men invited their new wives to go back home with them, but the women refused because they were not versed in the traditional ways of women. They were instead comfortable with archery, husbandry, and warfare. So the men went home and gathered their share of property and traveled away with their new wives to start a new community.

Other things to note from Herodotus:
The Amazon women were also called "Sauromatae", or "Sarmatian"
The Scythians called the Amazon women Oeorpata, which means "Killers of Men"
A young woman was not allowed to marry until she had killed a male enemy.

Herodotus also mentions Amazons in Book 9 Section 27.
All it says here is that the Amazons came from the River Thermodon and invaded Attica.

Alexander's Encounters with the Amazons

Summaries of Alexander's Encounters with the Amazons as Described by Historical Sources:

Cleitarchus- Some historians believe he may have taken this story from Onesicritus. Pharasmenes, king of the Chorasmians, offered to guide Alexander in a campaign against the Amazons. Alexander was also offered, but rejected, a Scythian bride.

Diodorus Siculus- Thallestris, queen of the Amazons, known for her beauty and strength, approached Alexander with 300 Amazons, with the intention of having a child with him, since he was considered the greatest man on Earth, and she considered herself the greatest woman on Earth. After 13 days of having sexual relations with her, he sent her home with impressive gifts.

Quintus Curtius Rufus- Basic description is very similar to that of Diodorus, however, he includes more details regarding the Amazons themselves, such as the dress of the Amazons (bare left breast), and the cauterization of the right breast for improved use of the bow and arrow. He also mentions that Alexander asked Thaletris to join him on his campaign, but she declined.

Justin- Again, the basic plot description is similar to that of Diodorus. This account includes an alternate name for Thalestris (Minythyia), and the detail of her travelling 35 days to meet up with Alexander.

Plutarch- He seems to doubt the validity of the Amazon episode in Alexander's campaign. He mentions that Aristobulus, Ptolemy, Anticlides and many others claim that it is pure fabrication. He says Alexander wrote a letter to Antipater regarding this episode, talking about the Scythian king, but not mentioning the Amazons.

Arrian- Includes the account of the Scythian king offering his daughter's hand in marriage to Alexander, as well as the account of Pharasmenes' offer to be Alexander's guide in the campaign against the Amazons.


Reference:

Yardley, J.C., Heckel, Waldemer, and David H. McKay. Alexander the Great: Historical Texts in Translation. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing LTD, 2004.

AMAZONS

Samartians from Google print

Sources for Alexander and the Amazons

PBS doc

This week's entires

1. Siwa (Siwah)
2. Serapis
3. Temple Incubation and Dreams
4. Obelisks
5. The SIlk Road
6. Nectanebo II
7. The Foundation of Alexandria (ad Aegyptum)
8. Sesonchosis

Silk Road Video description

Alexander the Great According to www.livius.org

Alexander the Great
According to livius.org
daharder
I. Youth
A. A Macedonian youth
1. Son of Macedonian king Philip II and queen Olympias
2. Philip brought the Macedonian people to civilization
3. Philip overcame political divisions to bring Macedonia to its potential
4. Persia was declining in power, due to civil war
5. Greek was declining in power, Sparta lost Messenia
B. The Macedonian army
1. Philip seized the throne in 360/359
2. His coins have been found all over Asia.
3. Elements of Philip’s army
a. The Companions- noblemen, fighting on horse
b. The phalanx- infantry men with lances
c. The Shield bearers- heavy infantry, the royal guard
d. The engineers- siege warfare
4. Alexander grew up surrounded by war
C. Education
1. Read books from Homer, Herdotus, Xenophon
2. Learned much of Persia: met Artabazus, Persian exile
3. Taught by Aristotle of Stagira
D. Macedonian, Greece, and Persia
1. Philip expanded Macedonia: added Trace, Chalcidice and Thessaly; attempted to unite Greece
2. Philip declared war on Persian in 337 in attempts to unite Greece
3. Artaxerxes III died; Artaxerxes IV had no firm grasp on throne and was then killed by Bagoas; Darius III Codomannus became King of Persia
4. Philip was murdered by one of his guards
5. Alexander became king and inherited the war in Asia

II. Restoring order in Greece
A. The first weeks
1. Antipater arranged that the army greeted Alexander as king
2. Alexander gained the loyalty of general Parmenion
3. He called the Thessalians to order
B. The sack of Thebes
1. Attacked Thracian tribes and the Illyrians to prove Macedonia was still strong
2. The Greek cities rebelled against Macedonian power, with rumor that Alexander had died in the campaign
3. Alexander ended the rebellion at Thebes by sending a phalanx battalion to raze the town
4. Alexander met with the philosopher Diogenes of Sinope, who believed that people should behave as simple as possible
III. Beginning of the Persian campaign
A. To Asia
1. Memnon of Rhodes had pushed back Parmenion
2. Alexander visited Troy to honor the Homeric heroes
3. Memnon proposed the Persians avoid battle and burn crops, forcing Alexander to return; the other commanders decided it was better to fight
B. The Granicus
1. Alexander and Parmenion moved to meet the Persians at the Granicus River, where the Persians held a strong defensive position
2. Alexander most likely listened to Parmenion’s advice and waited to attack
3. The Macedonians moved to the other bank; Persians launched a cavalry charge; Alexander led his archers and Agrianians against Memnon, and quickly ended the battle
C. Summer
1. Motives of expedition to Asia
a. To liberate Greek cities in the Achaemenid empire
b. To punish the Persians for the expedition of Xerxes
2. Alexander established democracies in the Greek towns of Asia
3. He appointed satraps and started to levy taxes from the towns
4. Parmenion captured Dascylium; Sardes surrendered to Alexander
5. The capture of Sardes enabled Alexander to pay his men
6. The Macedonians faced a difficult fight at Miletus; Persians had a strong harbor here
7. Admiral Nicanor occupied the island Lade and kept the Persian navy from entering the harbor; Alexander’s siege engines broke the the wall and took the city

IV. From Caria to Pamphylia
A. Halicarnassus
1. King Darius appointed Memnon as supreme commander in the west
a. Memnon remained in Halicarnassus and prepared for a long siege
b. King Darius used this time to build up a large army
2. The Persians had numerous advantages at Halicarnassus
a. Memnon had 300+ ships and could evacuate at any time
b. Walls were new and strong
3. Alexander took Halicarnassus, but lost many men
4. Alexander becames allies with Carian ruler Ada
B. Lycia and Pamphylia
1. Alexander decided to take the towns of Phoenicia, to ensure control of the sea
2. The Macedonian army took the ports of Lycia and Pamphylia with little resistance
3. One day the waters receded to let the army pass; this was the first step towards the belief that Alexander was a god

V. The Anatolian highland
A. Spring in Phrygia
1. The army strategically moved away from the coast into the highlands
2. Alexander and Parmenion split and conquered central Turkey; then met at Gordium in April 333
3. They stayed in Gordium to take share of the harvest and receive reinforcements
4. Memnon convinced Spartan king Agis III to attack the Macedonians; Memnon launched a successful naval offensive; Alexander ordered Antipater to assemble a navy
5. Both Darius and Alexander had grown too confident for negotiations
6. Alexander attempted to loosen the legendary Gordian knot, but eventually lost his temper and cut it with his sword
7. Memnon fell ill; Alexander ordered his men to continue their march
B. The Cilician gate
1. Alexander appointed Antigonus as satrap of Phrygia
2. The army marched the Royal Road, then turned south to Cilicia
3. Macedonians had to pass thru the Cilician gate and the scorched earth that Memnon left
4. During the night, Alexander led an attack and forced his way through
5. The Macedonians reached Tarsus just in time to save the city from the Persians

VI. Issus
A. Maneuvers
1. Macedonians heard rumors that Darius was assembling a huge army and advancing towards them as swift as possible
2. Alexander had fallen ill
3. After recovery, he launched a campaign against the mountain tribes of Cilicia
4. Parmenion and a small army occupied the “Assyrian Gate”
5. The Macedonians were planning to attack Darius in Sochi, but found out he had come around to their rear and captured Issus
6. Alexander’s only option was to face the Persian army
B. Battle
1. The outnumbered Macedonians descended to the Pinarus River; Darius had posted a force on the mountain to the Macedonian right
2. Alexander broke thru the enemy lines and attacked the Persian center
3. Darius was forced to retire from the battlefield
4. Losses were heavy on both sides
C. Aftermath
1. Parmenion went to Damascus and seized Darius’ treasure
2. Alexander used this treasure to mint new coins, with the head of Heracles on one side and Zeus on the other
3. Alexander treated Darius’ mother, wife, and children kindly
4. Alexander’s childhood friendship with Barsine, widow of Memnon, turned into a serious love affair
5. He was 23, and had to find a woman to marry
6. Alexander found a new city, Alexandria
7. Darius offered a ransom for his mother, wife and children; he eventually gave all of his land west of the Euphrates to Alexander
8. Alexander’s first letter to Darius was intentionally rude
9. Alexander began to refer to himself as “king of Asia”
10. Aradus surrendered to him immediately

Outline of John J. Popovic’s Webpage:

ALEXANDER THE GREAT: FROM HISTORY TO ETERNITY
by bdtyson

Part 1: From Birth to Asia Minor
I. Alexander’s Origins
A. Alexandros III Philippou Makedonon (Alexander the Great, Alexander III of Macedon) (356-323 B.C.).
B. Born to King Philip and Olympias
C. A handsome youth
1. Arrian describes Alexander: the strong, handsome commander with one eye dark as the night and one blue as the sky, always leading his army on his faithful Bucephalus.
2. He is described as of an athletic frame, though not taller than the common, and a white and ruddy complexion.

II. Alexander as Prince
A. Attributes
1. Alexander was fearless and strong
2. Prince Alexander was even more ambitious than his father
3. Alexander knew the Iliad by heart. He loved Homer
B. Education
1. Alexander from age 13 to 16, together with the other boys belonging to the Macedonian aristocracy, was taught by Aristotle at the Mieza temple
2. Greek philosopher himself who introduced them to the world of arts and sciences
3. Also very schooled in art and war.

III. Alexander as Prince Regent
A. During Philip's expedition against Byzantium in 340, Alexander, then sixteen years old was left in Macedonia
B. Alexander at this time was not idle
1. He managed to subjugate the rebellious Maedi, a Thracian tribe.
2. Founded a new city, Alexandropolis.

IV. Philip’s Kingdom
A. At the battle of Chaeronea Philip defeated the allied Greek states of the Sacred Band of Thebes in September 338 BC
1. Alexander demonstrated personal courage in breaking the Band
B. The prospect of conquering the Persian empire had become more realistic than in 346: Artaxerxes III had died in 338, and the new king was the much weaker Darius II
C. At the Council of Corinth, Philip imposed his political system on the Greek states (with exception of Sparta); Philip gave freedom and autonomy to all the political parties in each polis, establishing an administrative system that would be stable and loyal to him.
D. War on Persia
1. with the support of almost all Greece, Philip declared war on Persia in 337

V. Philip’s Death
A. Philip was assassinated by his officer Pausanias during the celebration of his daughter's wedding to Olympias' brother, Alexander of Epirus, in July 336.
B. Alexander was immediately presented to the army as the new king of Macedon
1. Alexander at once executed all those who were alleged to be behind Philip's murder along with all possible rivals and the whole faction opposed to him.

VI. Alexander, Stategos Autocrater of All Helenes
A. Alexander marched south, pacified Thessaly
B. On his return to Macedonia by way of Delphi, the Pythian priestess acclaimed him as invincible
C. Continuing local pacification
1. He started with blitz campaigns against the Triballi and Ilyrians
2 He marched into Thrace in Spring 335
3. Crossed the Danube to subjugate the Getae and Celtic tribes
4. Shattered a coalition of Illyrians who had invaded Macedonia
5. He took his army over the Danube and burnt a settlement of the Getae upon the other side
D. Athens and Thebes Revolt
1. By a forced march Alex. took the Thebans completely by surprise
2. When the Thebans refused to surrender, there were to be no half-measures
3. spared only the temples and the poet Pindar's house; 6,000 were killed and 30,000 survivors

VII. Beginnings of Alexander’s invasion of Persia
A. Motives
1. The reason for the invasion of Asia was to liberate the Greek cities taken by the Persians some years before.
2. Alexander wanted to prove how powerful he was
B. In to Persia
1. In the spring of 334, Alexander crossed the Dardanelles,(i.e. Hellespont), with an army of 30,000 men
2. Alexander himself commanded about 30,000 foot soldiers and over 5,000 cavalry
3. The army was accompanied by explorers, engineers, architects, scientists, court officials and historians.

VIII Battle of the Granicus, and the domination of Asia Minor.
A. The Persian force was led by three satraps
1. The Persians greatly outnumbered the Macedonians
B. The Battle
1. The Persian’s plan was to draw Alexander over the river, surround him, then kill him.
2. The plan failed, Alexander won the battle with his cavalry charge.
C. The victory at the Granicus opened up Asia Minor to the Macedonian Army, and Alexander went and secured other panhellenic cities.
1. He first went to take possession of the old Lydian capital Sardis, the headquarters of the Persian government on this side of the Taurus.
2. Alexander took control of Miletus when it didn’t open it’s gates.
D. Alexander makes the decision to abandon his navy and concentrate on taking all of Persia my land.
E. Alexander conquered western part of Asia Minor in winter 334-333
F. In Gordion, Alexander supposedly cuts loose the Gordion Knot.
G. The Persian commander Memnon dies in 333.
1. The Persian King Darius takes personal command of the army
2. Darius marches from Persepolis toward Alexander’s army.